by
Tarik Kiley
In the early to mid 20th century, many rural Black people moved from the southeastern USA to the industrialized cities of the northeast and midwest. This move was called the “Great Migration.” Notably, the Great Migration seriously impacted the development of urban, Black culture. The Harlem Renaissance, in the city of New York, for example, led to the rise and proliferation of Black literature and poetry. But, what was once a place of liberation soon became a place of indirect imprisonment. What originally provided opportunities for African-Americans would soon become a place of desperation and poverty. Thereby, we have the rise of the “ghetto.”
The American ghetto, or “inner city” was created through formal and informal exclusion and economic disinvestment. According to npr.,org, “In 1933, faced with a housing shortage, the federal government began a program explicitly designed to increase — and segregate — America’s housing stock. Author Richard Rothstein says the housing programs begun under the New Deal were tantamount to a ‘state-sponsored system of segregation.’ The government’s efforts were ‘primarily designed to provide housing to white, middle-class, lower-middle-class families,’ he says. African-Americans and other people of color were left out of the new suburban communities — and pushed instead into urban housing projects.” We have to understand that the prosperity that came around the time of circa WWII America, would not be shared with Black people. Redlining, blockbusting, white flight, all would be used to keep Black Americans, for lack of a better term, on their own reservations, in the “ghetto.” These concentrations of poverty and lack of economic opportunity would significantly damage the life chances of urban, African Americans.
The history of the creation of the American ghetto is thoroughly covered in Richard Rothstein’s book, “The Color of Law.” In order to understand residential segregation better, it is suggested to study Rothstein’s text.
Furthermore, to this day, the skin color of residents is used to determine the property values of urban neighborhoods. African-American owned homes are considered to be of less value than those in White majority neighborhoods, and there is the prevalent myth that Black neighborhoods are rampant with crime. While urban crime is a problem, there hasn’t been a significant scientific study to suggest that urban Blacks are more violent than their White counterparts. It is simply a prevailing perception.
We also have to understand the power of perception, specifically. Under the policy of “urban renewal,” many inner city African American communities were determined to be “blighted,” and were subsequently targeted to be torn down to build highways and other infrastructure projects that damaged the Black neighborhoods in question. At the same time, Black people couldn’t buy homes in White majority suburbs because of redlining policies. This combined with restrictive covenants kept many Black people from taking advantage of the vast economic development occurring in post-WWII suburbs, and instead Black people were forced into Black only, urban areas…the ghetto.
While worthy of another entire study completely, the rise of public housing in urban areas, up to about the mid-1990’s, was also detrimental to the development of the Black family, and kept urban, Black people in poverty as well.
The rise and prevalence of the American ghetto also had ties to the public education system. We know through history that one of the complaints of Civil Rights activists, in the 1960’s, was the unequal education system that came with segregation. Majority Black schools were underfunded, and didn’t have the high quality of resources granted to White majority schools. Now we know that the American Dream, post-WWII, had been connected to the idea of obtaining a higher education, and reaping the benefits that came about with the higher salaries granted to those with higher education. This means that if your children attended a neighborhood school, at the time, with that neighborhood school being segregated, as well, because of residential segregation, then the students would be surrounded by people of one racial identity, primarily. For urban Black people, your peers would be poor as well. This type of class distinction, tied with racial identities led to cultures of poverty, too.
Race and class became tied and began to influence urban, African American culture, in the post Civil Rights era. For example, rap music, and the culture of Hip Hop, invented in 1973, was heavily influenced by the feelings associated with experiencing poverty and racial exclusion. Songs such as “Ghetto Bastard,” by Naughty by Nature, released in 1991, explained the very real circumstances of living in the inner city.
It should also be understood that economic exclusion has had a significant impact on the everyday lives of African Americans, and economic empowerment is just as important as obtaining political power. While obtaining the power of the ballot is one thing, and admirable, living in poverty is another issue that needs to have a light shown upon it. The standard of living and neighborhood quality of life of Black people living in the urban USA needs to be examined and understood in the post-industrial context of the 21st century.
Just as Native Americans were pushed onto reservations, and forced into poverty, Black people need to understand the consequences of contemporary housing practices such as “gentrification.”
To remedy all of this, Black people would need to sustain incomes that keep us abreast of rising housing costs, and also to self-develop Black neighborhoods with shops and beneficial forms of infrastructure. Increased incomes for Black people, and the end of housing discrimination, will add to racial integration, as Black people will be able to afford more expensive, desirable homes, regardless of location, and will reap the benefits of the infrastructure in those areas, such as stellar public schools. Additionally, if Black, urban neighborhoods are no longer areas of increasing poverty, and White people move into those neighborhoods, then Black people will not be displaced if Black people have comparable income levels.
This all means that public schools, places of employment, banks, and local governments all need to shift their perceptions of urban, Black people and actually give us a chance. As someone born in the inner city of Baltimore, MD, in the late 1970s, I understand the perceptions of your life chances that come with poverty, and feelings of exclusion from the American Dream.
After all, it is about the American Dream. Only since the 1980’s, have we seen an emergent Black middle class, who had worked towards realizing the American Dream. But, more notable, we still have the despair of the inner city, as expressed through the 1992 rebellion in Los Angeles, CA for example. Urban, Black people still face perceptions of criminality and underdeservedness, that had come about with police brutality, miseducation, and treatment as an “underclass.” There are also the perversions that occur when poverty is enforced as it has been, such as gang violence and family disintegration.
It is thoroughly unfair to be determined as a member of an underclass, simply by chance of being born Black and poor. Instead, public education should work to give all Americans the tools that we all need to be successful members of a democratic society. Too many times, Black people are imagined as a threat, and excluded from the benefits of the American Dream. We are disparaged in movies such as, “The Birth of Nation (1915),” and throughout the 1990s, as well, in movies such as “Dangerous Minds (1995).” If American culture keeps imagining urban, Black people as unlearned and “dangerous,” then that will be the self-fulfilling prophecy.
Works Cited
https://www.npr.org/2017/05/03/526655831/a-forgotten-history-of-how-the-u-s-government-segregated-america
https://origins.osu.edu/watch/1992-los-angeles-rebellion#:~:text=When%20a%20Simi%20Valley%20jury,Breyfogle%2C%20and%20Laura%20Seeger.